The main sources for the Athenian constitution are Aristotle’s Athenian Constitution, the Epitaph speech of Pericles in Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War and the many contemporary speeches of Attic orators and inscriptions.

The reforms of Ephialtes (462/1 B.C.) and of Pericles (451/0 B.C.) completed Cleisthenes’ work on the democratisation of the constitution. The political, social and economic conditions that obtained during the establishment of the Athenian hegemony in the eastern Mediterranean were contributing factors in this process. The increasing involvement of the thetes, usually as rowers, in Athenian naval expeditions as part the Athenian League, strengthened their conviction that they contributed substantially to the development and dominance of their city, and they demanded participation in the political affairs.

The Athenians were much concerned with reinforcing and maintaining their democracy. In order to deal with aspiring tyrants, the systems of ostracism and graphe paranomon (the law against unconstitutional proposals) were instituted. Councillors swore an oath to denounce anyone who tried to undermine democracy, or who was implicated in any attempt to promote tyranny.


| introduction | political development of classical Athens | Athenian constitution | generals | Classical period

Note: Click on the icons for enlargements and explanations.
Underlined links lead to related texts; those not underlined ones are an explanatory glossary.